Professor Allen C. Guelzo

The Articles of Confederation were, for the states, not ratified and at times ignored. James Madison noticed that they also saw them as nothing more than a treaty of amity, of commerce, and of alliance, between independent and sovereign states. […]

James Madison took time out to study other confederacies and compared them with the current system. He read Hume’s observation that a state having large communities act as a system of checks and balances against one faction becoming dominant. Keeping that in mind he proposed a new framework of governance. […]

The Awakeners imparted to Patrick Henry a suspicion of authority, including the authority of the Church of England in Virginia. Thus, despite being deeply religious, he, as defense lawyer, fought for the Two-Penny Act against the clergy in Virginia. […]

The Church of England appointed parsons to its colonies of North America. It also expected complete conformity to its ‘Thirty-nine Articles of Religion’ which applied to non-Christians as well. This was challenged by the Presbyterian movement, the Great Awakening. […]

Enlightenment believes in reason. If its not vitiated by any authority and control, it is a capable tool for understanding the mysteries of life. […]

The behavior of the Confederation Congress fed Hamilton’s skepticism about elegant but rigid concepts of republicanism. […]

Thomas Jefferson followed the classical rules that defined a republic. However, Alexander Hamilton thought that these rules might not be quite so admirable as they sounded. […]

Alexander Hamilton wasn’t even born on the North American continent, and his family, unlike Thomas Jefferson’s gave him very little time with books. Yet, he flourished and joined the King’s College. […]

Although Shays’ rebellion was quelled by the government, it had sent warning signals across the Confederation. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts turned out to be incapable of governing. […]